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*** Jamaal Al-Din, "The World's #1 Sports Blogger (Chili' NBA)"!!! From Grand Rapids, Chili' Michigan!!! As of April 25, 2015 - 1,000,000 (1 Chili' MILLION) tweets on Twitter and 1,998 Press Releases !!!! NCAA Chili' Final Four!!! NBA Chili' Playoffs & NBA Chili' Championship!!! 227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA Mix!!! ***
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. - The everything basketball & YouTube entertainment website! Spicy' Chili' Basketball Camps & Sports (NBA, NFL, MLB, NHL, NASCAR, NCAA, AAU) Communications! Call Toll-Free (844) 891-1190 / Fax (844) 895-5739
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AFC East * Buffalo Bills / Miami Dolphins / New England Patriots / New York Jets / AFC North * Baltimore Ravens / Cincinnati Bengals / Cleveland Browns / Pittsburgh Steelers / AFC South * Houston Texans / Indianapolis Colts / Jacksonville Jaguars / Tennessee Titans / AFC West * Denver Broncos / Kansas City Chiefs / Oakland Raiders / San Diego Chargers / NFC East * Dallas Cowboys / New York Giants / Philadelphia Eagles / Washington Redskins / NFC North * Chicago Bears / Detroit Lions / Green Bay Packers / Minnesota Vikings / NFC South * Atlanta Falcons / Carolina Panthers / New Orleans Saints / Tampa Bay Buccaneers / NFC West * Arizona Cardinals / St. Louis Rams / San Francisco 49ers / Seattle Seahawks
227's™ YouTube Chili' JAMAAL "STALKED in BOISE!" The MOVIE! NBA NBCUniversal Mix! ***227's REAL Spicy' Chili' EVENTS!!! Jamaal, He's a model, internet YouTube NBA content creator, President and Corporate Executive!!! NBA Mix!!!***
During the 'golden age" of Hollywood, The Big Eight referred to the eight major Hollywoodmovie studios.[1] Since then, the number of major studios has fluctuated with bankruptcies -- RKO Radio Pictures, mergers -- United Artists and the 'promotion' of what was previously a 'minor' studio, e.g. The Walt Disney Company. The demotion of MGM leaves a current Big Six.
United Artists (UA) is an American film and television entertainment studio. The studio was founded in 1919 by D. W. Griffith,Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks with the intention of controlling their own interests rather than depending upon the powerful commercial studios.[1]
An incarnation of United Artists was formed in November 2006 as a partnership between producer/actor Tom Cruise and his production partner, Paula Wagner, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Paula Wagner left the studio on August 14, 2008.[2] Cruise owned a small stake in the studio until late 2011.[3]
In 2014, MGM acquired controlling interest in Mark Burnett and Roma Downey's entertainment companies One Three Media andLightworkers Media, then merged them to revive United Artists' TV production unit as United Artists Media Group (UAMG).[citation needed] On December 14, 2015, MGM acquired the 45% stake of UAMG it did not own and folded it into MGM Television.
227's™ YouTube Chili' JAMAAL "STALKED in BOISE!" The MOVIE! NBA NBCUniversal Mix! ***227's REAL Spicy' Chili' EVENTS!!! Jamaal, He's a model, internet YouTube NBA content creator, President and Corporate Executive!!! NBA Mix!!!***
During the 'golden age" of Hollywood, The Big Eight referred to the eight major Hollywoodmovie studios.[1] Since then, the number of major studios has fluctuated with bankruptcies -- RKO Radio Pictures, mergers -- United Artists and the 'promotion' of what was previously a 'minor' studio, e.g. The Walt Disney Company. The demotion of MGM leaves a current Big Six.
227's™ YouTube Chili' JAMAAL "STALKED in BOISE!" The MOVIE! NBA NBCUniversal Mix! ***227's REAL Spicy' Chili' EVENTS!!! Jamaal, He's a model, internet YouTube NBA content creator, President and Corporate Executive!!! NBA Mix!!!***
During the 'golden age" of Hollywood, The Big Eight referred to the eight major Hollywoodmovie studios.[1] Since then, the number of major studios has fluctuated with bankruptcies -- RKO Radio Pictures, mergers -- United Artists and the 'promotion' of what was previously a 'minor' studio, e.g. The Walt Disney Company. The demotion of MGM leaves a current Big Six.
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios Inc. (abbreviated as MGM or M-G-M, also known as Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer or Metro) is an American media company, involved primarily in the production and distribution of feature films and television programs.
227's™ YouTube Chili' JAMAAL "STALKED in BOISE!" The MOVIE! NBA NBCUniversal Mix! ***227's REAL Spicy' Chili' EVENTS!!! Jamaal, He's a model, internet YouTube NBA content creator, President and Corporate Executive!!! NBA Mix!!!***
During the 'golden age" of Hollywood, The Big Eight referred to the eight major Hollywoodmovie studios.[1] Since then, the number of major studios has fluctuated with bankruptcies -- RKO Radio Pictures, mergers -- United Artists and the 'promotion' of what was previously a 'minor' studio, e.g. The Walt Disney Company. The demotion of MGM leaves a current Big Six.
227's™ YouTube Chili' JAMAAL "STALKED in BOISE!" The MOVIE! NBA NBCUniversal Mix! ***227's REAL Spicy' Chili' EVENTS!!! Jamaal, He's a model, internet YouTube NBA content creator, President and Corporate Executive!!! NBA Mix!!!***
During the 'golden age" of Hollywood, The Big Eight referred to the eight major Hollywoodmovie studios.[1] Since then, the number of major studios has fluctuated with bankruptcies -- RKO Radio Pictures, mergers -- United Artists and the 'promotion' of what was previously a 'minor' studio, e.g. The Walt Disney Company. The demotion of MGM leaves a current Big Six.
227's™ YouTube Chili' JAMAAL "STALKED in BOISE!" The MOVIE! NBA NBCUniversal Mix! ***227's REAL Spicy' Chili' EVENTS!!! Jamaal, He's a model, internet YouTube NBA content creator, and President and Corporate Executive!!! NBA Mix!!!***
During the 'golden age" of Hollywood, The Big Eight referred to the eight major Hollywoodmovie studios.[1] Since then, the number of major studios has fluctuated with bankruptcies -- RKO Radio Pictures, mergers -- United Artists and the 'promotion' of what was previously a 'minor' studio, e.g. The Walt Disney Company. The demotion of MGM leaves a current Big Six.
The Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation (spelled as Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation with hyphen used from its inception until 1985, stylized as 20th Century Fox) is an American film studio, distributor and one of the six major American film studios. Located in the Century City area of Los Angeles, just west of Beverly Hills, the studio is currently owned by 21st Century Foxand is formerly owned by News Corporation.
Boise State Broncos men's basketballFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaBoise State Broncos 2015–16 Boise State Broncos men's basketball team Boise State Broncos athletic logo University Boise State University Conference Mountain West Location Boise, ID Head coach Leon Rice (6th year) Arena Taco Bell Arena (Capacity: 12,820) Nickname Broncos Student section The Corral Colors Blue and Orange Uniforms Kit body thinsidesonwhite.pngHome jerseyKit shorts blanksides2.pngTeam colours Home Kit body thinorangesides.pngAway jerseyKit shorts orangesides.pngTeam colours Away Kit body thinbluesides.pngAlternate jerseyKit shorts bluesides.pngTeam colours Alternate NCAA Tournament appearances 1976, 1988, 1993, 1994, 2008, 2013, 2015 Conference tournament champions 1976, 1988, 1993, 1994 (Big Sky), 2008 (WAC) Conference regular season champions 1976, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994 (Big Sky), 1999 (Big West East Division), 2008 (WAC) 2015 (Mountain West) The Boise State Broncos men's basketball team represents Boise State University in Boise, Idaho, United States. The school's team currently competes in the Mountain West Conference. The team's most recent appearance in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament was in 2015. The Broncos are led by head coach Leon Rice, hired March 27, 2010. They play their home games at Taco Bell Arena.
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Dominique Chili' Williams (Centennial Girls Spicy' Basketball) signs with Weber State Chili' Wildcats! Idaho High School Hoops! WNBA NBA Mix)! Daughter of former Boise State star Shambric Chili' Williams signs with Weber State Chili' Wildcats!
227's™ YouTube Chili' Dominique Chili' Williams signs with the Weber State Chili' Wildcats WNBA NBA Mix! BOISE, Idaho - Feb. 26, 2016 - PRLog -- Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Dominique Chili' Williams [Centennial Girls Spicy' Basketball] to Weber State! Idaho High School Hoops! WNBA NBA Mix)! Daughter of former Boise State star Shambric Chili' Williams (Big Sky Basketball Spicy' Champions) signs with the Weber State Chili' Wildcats! NCAA WNBA NBA Mix!
227's Shambric Chili' Williams got a Spicy' Chili' laugh from high-school and college basketball fans at Nique's Spicy' college selection press conference: "I am extremely Spicy' Chili' happy I'm not paying that Spicy' Chili' tuition," said Shambric.
*** 227's Congratulations to the Williams family, Dominique Chili' Williams, Centennial High School Chili' Patriots (Boise, ID), and the Idaho Spicy' Chili' Hoop Dreams AAU basketball program for Nique's scholarship to Weber State University in Ogden, Utah!!! ***
"It was great competing against Shambric (College of Eastern Utah), when I played Junior College basketball at Treasure Valley Community College (Ontario, Oregon), said Al-Din. "Great Spicy' Chili' person and even better Spicy' Chili' parent."
Established: 1963 Association: NCAA Division: Division I FCS Members: 11 full-time (2 football affiliates) (2 men's golf affiliates)
Sports fielded: 16 (men's: 7; women's: 9) Region: Western United States (plus Northeastern United States in men's golf)
Headquarters: Ogden, Utah
Commissioner: Douglas Fullerton (since 1995) Website: bigskyconf.com
The Big Sky Conference (BSC) is a collegiate athletic conference affiliated with the NCAA'sDivision I, with football competing in the Football Championship Subdivision. Member institutions are located in the western United States in the nine states of Arizona, California, Colorado,Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. Four affiliate members each participate in one sport. Two schools from California are football-only participants, and two schools from the Northeast participate only in men's golf. Initially conceived for basketball,[1] the BSC was founded in 1963 with six members in four states; four of the charter members have been in the league from its founding, and a fifth returned in 2014 after an 18-year absence.
227's™ YouTube Chili' Weber State Chili' Wildcats Basketball, Idaho High-School Spicy' Basketball, and WNBA Chili' Videos (2/26/2016): Centennial wins 5A District Three girls basketball title * Centennial holds off Boise in double overtime to claim its first district girls basketball title since 2011. * Nique signing NLI * Hoop Dreams class of 2016 PART 1 * Boise High Pink Zone Event * Boise High Girls Basketball held its 8th Annual Pink Zone event which is a yearly event to support the local Boise chapter of the Susan G. Komen Foundation. Last year the raffle held at Boise High School in Boise, Idaho raised $1,571. * 1980 State Championship Boise High Basketball Game - Buzzer beater by Craig Spjute * Boise High defeats crosstown rival Capital High School for it's first championship in 33 years. Coach Greg Hordemann wins his 2nd of 3 state championships. * Destiny Slocum verbal with Washington * Destiny Slocum from Mountain View High School verbally commits to University of Washington`s women's basketball program. * Maya Moore on Taking Part in USAB Camp * Check out Maya Moore discuss what it's like to be at USAB Training Camp as they prepare for the 2016 Summer Olympics. * Geno Auriemma Welcomes Players to USAB Camp * Check out Coach Geno Auriemma welcome his players to USAB camp as they prepare for the 2016 Summer Olympics. * Damian Lillard Highlights ***2011-12 SEASON MIX*** * The NCAA leading scorer for most of the 2011-12 season is Damian Lillard of Weber State University. * Enjoy A FEW of his highlights from the 2011-12 season, his junior year at WSU. * WNBA Celebrates Upcoming 20th Season at NBA All-Star Game * The WNBA celebrates its upcoming 20th season by honoring current and former stars.
*** Jamaal Al-Din, "The World's #1 Sports Blogger (Chili' NBA)"!!! As of April 25, 2015 - 1,000,000 (1 Chili' MILLION) tweets on Twitter and 1,998 Press Releases !!!! NCAA Chili' Final Four!!! NBA Chili' Playoffs & NBA Chili' Championship!!! 227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA Mix!!! ***
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Dominique Chili' Williams (Centennial Girls Spicy' Basketball) to Weber State! Idaho Hoops! WNBA NBA #WEBERSTATE'SpicyChili' #NCAAWOMENSBASKETBALL'SpicyChili' Mix) *** 227's YouTube Chili' Boise State Spicy' Alumni! NBA #SHAMBRICWILLIAMS'SpicyChili' #BOISESTATEBASKETBALL'SpicyChili' #AAU'SpicyChili' #HOOPDREAMS'SpicyChili' Mix) ***
*** Graduate of the ZIONS Bank (Boise, ID) Business Success Academy *** Thank-you to Karen Appelgren - Assistant Director, Sheila Spangler - Vice President & Director, and Utah Jazz (NBA) Basketball Sponsor (Affiliate Team of NBA D-League Idaho Chili' Stampede) & Boise State University Athletics Sponsor - ZIONS Bank
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA 2015 - 2016 NBA Playoffs ESPN Spicy' Mix)-cooks da' spiciest Wikipedia information (like dat' POPEYE's FRIED CHICKEN), YouTube NBA & NFL:
Atlanta Hawks / Boston Celtics / Charlotte Bobcats / Chicago Bulls / Cleveland Cavaliers / Dallas Mavericks / Denver Nuggets / Detroit Pistons / Golden State Warriors / Houston Rockets / Indiana Pacers / Los Angeles Clippers / Los Angeles Lakers / Memphis Grizzlies / Miami Heat / Milwaukee Bucks / Minnesota Timberwolves / New Jersey Nets / New Orleans Hornets / New York Knicks / Orlando Magic / Philadelphia 76ers / Phoenix Suns / Portland Trail Blazers / Sacramento Kings / San Antonio Spurs / Oklahoma City Thunder (OKC) / Toronto Raptors / Utah Jazz / Washington WizardsContactJamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc.***@hoops227.coEnd
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Dominique Chili' Williams [Centennial Girls Spicy' Basketball] to Weber State! Idaho High School Hoops! WNBA NBA Mix)! Daughter of former Boise State star Shambric Chili' Williams (Big Sky Basketball Spicy' Champions) signs with the State Chili' Wildcats! NCAA WNBA NBA Mix!
227's™ YouTube Chili' Talon Chili' Pinckney Spicy' Game Winner vs Borah! Centennial Chili' Patriots to the Idaho State Basketball Tournament! Idaho HS Hoops! NBA Mix!
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Talon Chili' Pinckney [Centennial Chili' Patriots] Spicy' Game Winner vs Borah (Boise, ID) HS Basketball NBA Mix) Top two point guards in Idaho (Talon Chili' Pinckney vs DeAndre Chili' Jones)! Talon's Spicy' Game Winner! NBA Mix!
227's™ YouTube Chili' Talon Chili' Pinckney Game Winner! Centennial HS! NBA Mix! BOISE, Idaho - Feb. 22, 2016 - PRLog -- Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Talon Chili' Pinckney Game Winner vs Borah [Boise, ID] High School Basketball NBA Mix) Top two point guards in Idaho (Talon Chili' Pinckney vs DeAndre Chili' Jones)! Talon Chili' Pinckney's Spicy' Game Winner! An AMAZING jump shot! Talon Pinckney, leaning towards the rim, in the air, with two players guarding him!!! Spectacular Chili'!!! Pinckney, one of the winningest point guards in Idaho High School Basketball history, runs to half-court and leaps into the air with the Centennial fans rushing the basketball court, for a Hoosiers Spicy' Chili' Movie style finish!!! 227's AMAZING Spicy' Chili'!!! Idaho High School Basketball NBA Mix!!! *** 227's Talon Chili' Pinckey's Spicy' Chili' AMAZING game winning shot at 1:24:31 of the Spicy' Chili' YouTube video!!! ***
1.) Centennial, Borah boys basketball teams punch tickets to state Idaho Statesman - 1 day ago
Talon Pinckney scored 14 points to lead three Patriots in double figures, and Centennial clinched its first berth to the state tournament since ...
227's Talon Chili' Pinckney is one of the most winningest point guards in the history of Idaho High School basketball. He's a complete player and his hoops resume includes an undefeated high school basketball season at Boise, Idaho's Capital High School. Talon transferred to Centennial High School for his Senior season and the Patriots have had a Spicy' Chili' spectacular season!
*** 227's Congratulations to the Centennial Chili' Patriots (Boise, ID) on qualifying for the Idaho High School Basketball State Tournament!!! ***
*** 227's Shout out to my Head Basketball Coach at Treasure Valley Community College, Drake Chili' Wallick ([Drake Spicy'] GO Chili' CHUKARS) and Coach Wallick's son, #22 Taylor Chili' Wallick (Shooting Guard - Centennial Chili' Patriots & AAU Spicy' Hoop Dreams)!!! Good luck at the District Championship & Idaho High School State Basketball Tournament!!! ***
227's "Talon Chili' Pinckney is clutch," said Al-Din. "I've known Talon's Dad since I was in High School (Mountain Home Air Force Base) and it was special seeing the video of the Centennial vs Borah matchup on YouTube with Talon hitting that amazing game winner! Talon's Dad, James ("Pink" Spicy') Pinckney is from New York Chili' NYC and Talon has a New York Spicy' point guard game! He's Spicy' Chili' electric!*** An amazing, memorable game for Idaho's historic point guard, Talon Chili' Pinckey (formerly of Capital High School Chili' Eagles [227's Jake Chili' Plummer - NFL]; transferred to the Centennial Chili' Patriots for the 2015-16 season. Watch Talon's Spicy' Chili' game winning shot vs. the Borah Chili' Lions on YouTube!!!!!! ***
227's™ YouTube Chili' Idaho High School Basketball and NBA Chili' Videos (2/22/2016): Centennial High's Pinckney hits game-winner * Centennial point guard Talon Pinckney made an under-handed shot off the backboard with 2 seconds left in the game to beat top-ranked Borah 38-36. * Talon Pinckney Hoop Dreams 2016 * Centennial Game Winning Shot * Centennial High School's Talon Pinckney hits a game winning shot with under three seconds left to play to defeat Borah 38-36 ...* BAM JAM - TEAM PEWN * TALON PINCKNEY AND TEAM PEWN PERFORM IN BAM JAM BOISE * Rylan Bergersen DUNK * Rylan Bergersen alley swoop from DeAndre Jones. Video courtesy of Rhonda Bergersen. * The Rices - Boise's first family of basketball * Boise State men's basketball coach Leon Rice and his two oldest sons - Timberline's Brock Rice and Bishop Kelly's Max Rice - talk about the competitive streak that has made Brock and Max two of the top players in the Treasure Valley. * Top 10 NBA Plays: All-Star Saturday Night * Take a look at the 10 best plays from All-Star Saturday Night. * Top 10 NBA Plays: February 21st * Here's a look at the best of the best from Sunday night's action in the Association. * Utah Jazz vs Portland Trail Blazers | Full Highlights | February 21, 2016 | NBA 2015-16 Season
*** Jamaal Al-Din, "The World's #1 Sports Blogger (Chili' NBA)"!!! As of April 25, 2015 - 1,000,000 (1 Chili' MILLION) tweets on Twitter and 1,998 Press Releases !!!! NCAA Chili' Final Four!!! NBA Chili' Playoffs & NBA Chili' Championship!!! 227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA Mix!!! ***
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Talon Chili' Pinckney (Centennial HS - Boise, ID) Game Winner vs Borah (Boise, ID) HS Basketball NBA Mix) *** 227's Talon Chili' Pinckey's Spicy' Chili' AMAZING game winning shot at 1:24:31 of the Spicy' Chili' YouTube video!!! 227's Congratulations to the Centennial Chili' Patriots (Boise, ID) on qualifying for the Idaho High School Basketball State Tournament with a victory over Capital on Saturday in the 5A District Three Tournament semifinals. *** NBA #HighSchoolBasketball'SpicyChili' Mix) ***
*** Graduate of the ZIONS Bank (Boise, ID) Business Success Academy *** Thank-you to Karen Appelgren - Assistant Director, Sheila Spangler - Vice President & Director, and Utah Jazz (NBA) Basketball Sponsor (Affiliate Team of NBA D-League Idaho Chili' Stampede) & Boise State University Athletics Sponsor - ZIONS BankJamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA 2015 - 2016 NBA Playoffs ESPN Spicy' Mix)-cooks da' spiciest Wikipedia information (like dat' POPEYE's FRIED CHICKEN), YouTube NBA & NFL:
Atlanta Hawks / Boston Celtics / Charlotte Bobcats / Chicago Bulls / Cleveland Cavaliers / Dallas Mavericks / Denver Nuggets / Detroit Pistons / Golden State Warriors / Houston Rockets / Indiana Pacers / Los Angeles Clippers / Los Angeles Lakers / Memphis Grizzlies / Miami Heat / Milwaukee Bucks / Minnesota Timberwolves / New Jersey Nets / New Orleans Hornets / New York Knicks / Orlando Magic / Philadelphia 76ers / Phoenix Suns / Portland Trail Blazers / Sacramento Kings / San Antonio Spurs / Oklahoma City Thunder (OKC) / Toronto Raptors / Utah Jazz / Washington Wizards Contact Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc.***@hoops227.co
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, Inc. (227's™ YouTube Chili' Talon Chili' Pinckney Game Winner vs Borah [Boise, ID] High School Basketball NBA Mix) Top two point guards in Idaho (Talon Chili' Pinckney vs DeAndre Chili' Jones)! Talon Chili' Pinckney's Spicy' Game Winner! An amazing jump shot; Talon Pinckney, leaning towards the rim, in the air, with two players guarding him!!! Spectacular Chili'!!! Pinckney, one of the winningest point guards in Idaho High School Basketball history, runs to half-court and leaps into the air with the Centennial fans rushing the basketball court, for a Hoosiers Spicy' Chili' Movie style finish!!! 227's AMAZING Spicy' Chili'!!! Idaho High School Basketball NBA Mix!!! *** 227's Talon Chili' Pinckey's Spicy' Chili' AMAZING game winning shot at 1:24:31 of the Spicy' Chili' YouTube video!!! NBA Mix!!! ***
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's YouTube Chili' James Chili' Webb #23 Boise State NASA Spicy' Flight Launch NBA Mix) Electrifying Dunk Flights at Boise State's Taco Bell Chili' Arena!!!!! It's a Chili' bird, it's a Chili' plane......it's Boise State's James Chili' Webb III flying through the air at Taco Bell Arena like the Avengers INCREDIBLE Chili' HULK for a spectacular Spicy' SLAM DUNK!!!!!!!! GO Chili' BRONCOS!!!!!!!!
There's the James Webb NASA Space Telescope for exploration and NASA Chili' Research!!! Watch #23 James Chili' Webb III take flight like the Chili' NASA Spicy' Space Shuttle at Boise State University's Taco Bell Chili' Arena!!! The Chili' Dunk Masta'!!!!!!!!!!!!!! #23 James Chili' Webb III takes FLIGHT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), previously known as Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST), is a planned space observatory scheduled to launch in October 2018. The JWST will offer unprecedented resolution and sensitivity from long-wavelength visible to the mid-infrared, and is a successor instrument to the Hubble Space Telescope and the Spitzer Space Telescope. The telescope features a segmented 6.5-meter (21 ft) diameter primary mirror and will be located near the Earth–Sun L2 point. A large sunshield will keep its mirror and four science instruments below 50 K (−220 °C; −370 °F).
JWST's capabilities will enable a broad range of investigations across the fields of astronomy and cosmology.[3] One particular goal involves observing some of the most distant objects in the Universe, beyond the reach of current ground and space based instruments. This includes the very first stars, the epoch of reionization, and the formation of the first galaxies. Another goal is understanding the formation of stars and planets. This will include imaging molecular clouds and star-forming clusters, studying the debris disks around stars, direct imaging of planets, and spectroscopic examination of planetary transits.
In gestation since 1996,[4] the project represents an international collaboration of about 17 countries[5] led by NASA, and with significant contributions from the European Space Agency and the Canadian Space Agency. It is named after James E. Webb, the second administrator of NASA, who played an integral role in the Apollo program.[6]
The JWST has a history of major cost overruns. In 2011, the United States House of Representatives voted to terminate funding, after about $3 billion had been spent and 75 percent of its hardware was in production.[7] Funding was restored in compromise legislation with the US Senate, and spending on the program was capped at $8 billion.[8] As of December 2014, the telescope remained on schedule and within budget, but at risk of delays.[9]
The telescope has an expected mass about half of Hubble's, but its primary mirror (a 6.5 meter diameter gold-coated beryllium reflector) will have a collecting area about five times larger (25 m2 vs. 4.5 m2). The JWST is oriented towards near-infrared astronomy, but can also see orange and red visible light, as well as the mid-infrared region, depending on the instrument. The telescope will focus on the near to mid-infrared for three main reasons: high-redshift objects have their visible emissions shifted into the infrared, cold objects such as debris disks and planets emit most strongly in the infrared, and this band is very hard to study from the ground or by existing space telescopes such as Hubble.
The JWST will operate near the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, approximately 1,500,000 kilometres (930,000 mi) beyond the Earth. Objects near this point can orbit the Sun in synchrony with the Earth, allowing the telescope to remain at a roughly constant distance[11] and use a single sunshield to block heat and light from the Sun and Earth. This will keep the temperature of the spacecraft below 50 K (−220 °C; −370 °F), necessary for infrared observations.[12]
Launch is scheduled for 2018 on an Ariane 5 rocket. Its nominal mission length is five years, with a goal of ten years.[13][14] The prime contractor is Northrop Grumman.
Development
Comparison with Hubble primary mirror
Early development work for a Hubble successor between 1989 and 1994 led to the Hi-Z[15] telescope concept, a fully baffled[Note 1] 4-meter aperture infrared telescope going out to 3 AU in its orbit.[16] The distant orbit helped reduce light noise from zodiacal dust.[16] Other early plans called for a NEXUS precursor telescope mission.[17][18]
In the "faster, better, cheaper" era in the mid-1990s, NASA leaders pushed for a low-cost space telescope.[19] The result was the NGST, with an 8 meter aperture and located at L2, estimated to cost $500 million.[19] In 1997, NASA worked with the Goddard Space Flight Center,[20]Ball Aerospace,[21] and TRW[22] to conduct technical requirement and cost studies, and in 1999 selected Lockheed Martin[23] and TRW for preliminary design concepts.[24] In 2002, NASA awarded the $824.8 million prime contract for the NGST, now renamed the James Webb Space Telescope, to TRW. The design called for a 6.1-meter (20 ft) primary mirror and a launch date of 2010.[25] Later that year, TRW would be acquired by Northrop Grumman in a hostile bid and became Northrop Grumman Space Technology/Ball Aerospace.[24]
The telescope's delays and cost increases can be compared to the Hubble Space Telescope.[26] When it formally started in 1972, what came to be known as Hubble had a then estimated development cost of $300 million (or about $1 billion in 2006 constant dollars),[26] but by the time it was sent into orbit in 1990, cost about four times that.[26] In addition, new instruments and servicing missions increased the cost to at least $9 billion by 2006.[26]
A 2006 article in the journal Nature noted a study in 1984 by the Space Science Board, which estimated that a next generation infrared observatory would cost $4 billion (about $7 billion in 2006 dollars).[26]
Other major telescope concepts that have either been canceled, studied, or are not approaching launch include MAXIM (Microarcsecond X-ray Imaging Mission), SAFIR (Single Aperture Far-Infrared Observatory), SUVO (Space Ultraviolet-Visible Observatory), SPECS (Submillimeter Probe of the Evolution of Cosmic Structure), and the aforementioned canceled TPF, SIM, LISA, and IXO.
Mission
Infrared observations can see objects hidden in visible light, HUDF-JD2 shown
The JWST's primary scientific mission has four main components: to search for light from the first stars and galaxies that formed in the Universe after the Big Bang, to study the formation and evolution of galaxies, to understand the formation of stars and planetary systems and to study planetary systems and the origins of life.[27] These goals can be accomplished more effectively by observation in near-infrared light rather than light in the visible part of the spectrum. For this reason the JWST's instruments will not measure visible or ultraviolet light like the Hubble Telescope, but will have a much greater capacity to perform infrared astronomy. The JWST will be sensitive to a range of wavelengths from 0.6 (orange light) to 28 micrometers (deep infrared radiation at about 100 K (−170 °C; −280 °F)).
Infrared astronomy
JWST is the formal successor to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), and since its primary emphasis is on infrared observation, it is also a successor to the Spitzer Space Telescope. JWST will far surpass both those telescopes, being able to see many more and much older stars and galaxies.[28] Observing in the infrared is a key technique for achieving this, because it better penetrates obscuring dust and gas, allows observation of dim cooler objects, and because of cosmological redshift. Since water vapor and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere strongly absorbs most infrared, ground-based infrared astronomy is limited to narrow wavelength ranges where the atmosphere absorbs less strongly. Additionally, the atmosphere itself radiates in the infrared, often overwhelming light from the object being observed. This makes space the ideal place for infrared observation.[29]
The distant universe: The more distant an object is, the younger it appears: its light has taken longer to reach us. Because the universe is expanding, as the light travels it becomes red-shifted, and these objects are therefore easier to see if viewed in the infrared.[30] JWST's infrared capabilities are expected to let it see all the way to the very first galaxies forming just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.[31]
Dust penetration: Infrared radiation is better able to pass freely through dusty regions of space that scatter radiation in the visible spectrum. These two images of the Carina Nebula (left margin) were taken with the HST. The top image was photographed utilizing the visible spectrum whereas the bottom image was taken in the infrared using the HST's WFC3 upgrade. Many more stars can be counted in the infrared image than in the visible light image. Observations in infrared allow the study of objects and regions of space which would be obscured by gas and dust in the visible spectrum,[30] such as the molecular clouds where stars are born, the circumstellar disks that give rise to planets, and the cores of active galaxies.[30]
Cool objects: Relatively cool objects (temperatures less than several thousand degrees) emit their radiation primarily in the infrared, as described by Planck's law. As a result, most objects that are cooler than stars are better studied in the infrared. This includes the clouds of the interstellar medium, the "failed stars" called brown dwarfs, planets both in our own and other solar systems, and comets and Kuiper belt objects.
Orbit
JWST will not be exactly at the L2 point, but circle around it in a halo orbit.
The JWST will be located near the second Lagrange point (L2) of the Earth-Sun system, which is 1,500,000 kilometers (930,000 mi) from Earth, directly opposite to the Sun. Normally an object circling the Sun farther out than Earth would take longer than one year to complete its orbit, but near the L2 point the combined gravitational pull of the Earth and the Sun allow a spacecraft to orbit the Sun in the same time it takes the Earth. The telescope will circle about the L2 point in a halo orbit, which will be inclined with respect to the ecliptic, have a radius of approximately 800,000 kilometers (500,000 mi), and take about half a year to complete.[11] Since L2 is just an equilibrium point with no gravitational pull, a halo orbit is not an orbit in the usual sense: the spacecraft is actually in orbit around the Sun, and the halo orbit can be thought of as controlled drifting to remain in the vicinity of the L2 point.[32] This requires some station-keeping: around 2–4 m/s per year[33] from the total budget of 150 m/s.[34]
Since the telescope will be so far from Earth (around four times as far away as the Moon), its instruments have not been designed for in-orbit servicing. Nevertheless, the JWST will be equipped with a docking ring so as to not preclude a visit by robotic or crewed spacecraft such as the Orion MPCV for minimal tasks, such as releasing a stuck antenna or solar panel.[35]
Sunshield protection
Test unit of the sunshield stacked and expanded at the Northrop Grumman facility in California
In order to make observations in the infrared spectrum, the JWST must be kept very cold (under 50 K (−220 °C; −370 °F)), otherwise infrared radiation from the telescope itself would swamp its instruments. Therefore it uses a large sunshield to block light and heat from the Sun, Earth, and Moon, and its position near the Earth-Sun L2 point keeps all three bodies on the same side of the spacecraft at all times.[36] Its halo orbit around L2 avoids the shadow of the Earth and Moon, maintaining a constant environment for the sunshield and solar arrays.[11] The sunshield is made of polyimide film, has membranes coated with aluminum on one side and silicon on the other.
The sunshield is designed to be folded twelve times so it will fit within the Ariane 5 rocket's 4.57 m × 16.19 m shroud. Once deployed at the L2 point, it will unfold to 12.2 m × 18 m. The sunshield was hand-assembled at Man Tech (NeXolve) in Huntsville, Alabama before it was delivered to Northrop Grumman in Redondo Beach, California for testing.[37]
Optics and instruments
Optical design
JWST's primary mirror is a 6.5-meter-diameter gold-coated beryllium reflector with a collecting area of 25 m2. This is too large for contemporary launch vehicles, so the mirror is composed of 18 hexagonal segments, which will unfold after the telescope is launched. Image plane wavefront sensing through phase retrieval will be used to position the mirror segments in the correct location using very precise micro-motors. Subsequent to this initial configuration they will only need occasional updates every few days to retain optimal focus.[38] This is unlike terrestrial telescopes like the Keck which continually adjust their mirror segments using active optics to overcome the effects of gravitational and wind loading, and is made possible because of the lack of environmental disturbances of a telescope in space.
JWST's optical design is a three-mirror anastigmat,[39] which makes use of curved secondary and tertiary mirrors to deliver images that are free of optical aberrations over a wide field. In addition, there is a fast steering mirror, which can adjust its position many times a second to provide image stabilization.
Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. is the principal optical subcontractor for the JWST program, led by prime contractor Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems, under a contract from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, in Greenbelt, Maryland.[40] Eighteen primary mirror segments, secondary, tertiary and fine steering mirrors, plus flight spares have been fabricated and polished by Ball Aerospace based on beryllium segment blanks manufactured by several companies including Axsys, Brush Wellman, and Tinsley Laboratories. As of June 2011, the first set of six fully completed mirror segments, including rigid supporting frames and cryogenic actuators, was undergoing final testing at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, and testing all of the remaining mirrors was completed by December 2011, two months ahead of schedule.[41]
Scientific instruments
The Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) contains four science instruments and a guide camera.[42]
NIRCam model
NIRSpec model
MIRI model
Near InfraRed Camera (NIRCam) is an infrared imager which will have a spectral coverage ranging from the edge of the visible (0.6 micrometers) through the near infrared (5 micrometers).[43][44][45] NIRCam will also serve as the observatory's wavefront sensor, which is required for wavefront sensing and control activities. NIRCam is being built by a team led by the University of Arizona, with Principal Investigator Marcia Rieke. The industrial partner is Lockheed-Martin's Advanced Technology Center located in Palo Alto, California.[46]
Near InfraRed Spectrograph (NIRSpec) will also perform spectroscopy over the same wavelength range. It is being built by the European Space Agency at ESTEC in Noordwijk, Netherlands. The leading development team is composed of people from Astrium, Ottobrunn and Friedrichshafen, Germany, and the Goddard Space Flight Center; with Pierre Ferruit as NIRSpec project scientist. The NIRSpec design provides 3 observing modes: a low-resolution mode using a prism, an R~1000 multi-object mode and an R~2700 integral field unit or long-slit spectroscopy mode.[47] Switching of the modes is done by operating a wavelength preselection mechanism called the Filter Wheel Assembly, and selecting a corresponding dispersive element (prism or grating) using the Grating Wheel Assembly mechanism. Both mechanisms are based on the successful ISOPHOT wheel mechanisms of the Infrared Space Observatory. The multi-object mode relies on a complex micro-shutter mechanism to allow for simultaneous observations of hundreds of individual objects anywhere in NIRSpec's field of view. The mechanisms and their optical elements are being designed,[48] integrated and tested by Carl Zeiss Optronics GmbH of Oberkochen, Germany, under contract from Astrium.[49]
Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) will measure the mid-infrared wavelength range from 5 to 27 micrometers. It contains both a mid-IR camera and an imaging spectrometer.[50] MIRI is being developed as a collaboration between NASA and a consortium of European countries, and is led by George Rieke (University of Arizona) and Gillian Wright (UK Astronomy Technology Centre, Edinburgh, part of the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC)).[46] MIRI features similar wheel mechanisms as NIRSpec which are also developed and built by Carl Zeiss Optronics GmbH under contract from the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg.[51][52][53] The completed Optical Bench Assembly of MIRI was delivered to Goddard in mid-2012 for eventual integration into the ISIM.
Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS), led by the Canadian Space Agency under project scientist John Hutchings (Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, National Research Council of Canada), is used to stabilize the line-of-sight of the observatory during science observations. Measurements by the FGS are used both to control the overall orientation of the spacecraft and to drive the fine steering mirror for image stabilization. The Canadian Space Agency is also providing a Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS) module for astronomical imaging and spectroscopy in the 0.8 to 5 micrometer wavelength range, led by principal investigator René Doyon at the University of Montreal.[46] Because the NIRISS is physically mounted together with the FGS, they are often referred to as a single unit, but they serve entirely different purposes, with one being a scientific instrument and the other being a part of the observatory's support infrastructure.
The infrared detectors for the NIRCam, NIRSpec, FGS, and NIRISS modules are being provided by Teledyne Imaging Sensors (formerly Rockwell Scientific Company).
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM) and Command and Data Handling (ICDH) engineering team uses SpaceWire to send data between the science instruments and the data-handling equipment.[54]
NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, is leading the management of the observatory project. The project scientist for the James Webb Space Telescope is John C. Mather. Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems serves as the primary contractor for the development and integration of the observatory. They are responsible for developing and building the spacecraft element, which includes both the spacecraft bus and sunshield. Ball Aerospace has been subcontracted to develop and build the Optical Telescope Element (OTE). Northrop Grumman's Astro Aerospace business unit has been contracted to build the Deployable Tower Assembly (DTA) which connects the OTE to the spacecraft bus[55] and the Mid Boom Assembly (MBA) which helps to deploy the large sunshields on orbit.[56]Goddard Space Flight Center is also responsible for providing the Integrated Science Instrument Module (ISIM).[40]
The observatory attaches to the Ariane 5 rocket via a launch vehicle adapter ring which could be used by a future spacecraft to grapple the observatory to attempt to fix gross deployment problems. However, the telescope itself is not serviceable, and astronauts would not be able to perform tasks such as swapping instruments, as with the Hubble Telescope.
Most of the data processing on the telescope is done by conventional single-board computers.[57] The conversion of the analog science data to digital form is performed by the custom-built SIDECAR ASIC (System for Image Digitization, Enhancement, Control And Retrieval Application Specific Integrated Circuit). It is said[by whom?] that the SIDECAR ASIC will include all the functions of a 20-pound (9.1 kg) instrument box in a package the size of a half-dollar[quantify], and consume only 11 milliwatts of power. Since this conversion must be done close to the detectors, on the cool side of the telescope, the low power use of this IC will be crucial for maintaining the low temperature required for optimal operation of the JWST.[58]
Ground support and operations
The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) in Baltimore, Maryland has been selected as the Science and Operations Center (S&OC) for JWST. In this capacity, STScI will be responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and delivery of data products to the astronomical community.[59] Data will be transmitted from JWST to the ground via NASA's Deep Space Network, processed and calibrated at STScI, and then distributed online to astronomers worldwide. Similar to how Hubble is operated, anyone, anywhere in the world, will be allowed to submit proposals for observations. Each year several committees of astronomers will peer review the submitted proposals to select the programs to observe in the coming year. The authors of the chosen proposals will typically have one year of private access to the new observations, after which the data will become publicly available for download by anyone from the online archive at STScI.
Program status
NASA, space science industry, and government officials, with a full-size telescope model at Maryland Science Center in Baltimore.
A review of the program released in August 2011, said the cost for the telescope and 5 years of operations will be $8.7 billion with a planned launch in 2018.[60] Of that price about $800 million is for the five years of operations.[61][62] The Webb will be launched from Arianespace's ELA-3 launch complex at European Spaceport located near Kourou, French Guiana. The planned launch vehicle is an Ariane 5 ECA with a cryogenic upper stage.[63][dated info]
History of the program
Cost growth revealed in spring 2005[when?] led to an August 2005 re-planning.[64] The primary technical outcomes of the re-planning were significant changes in the integration and test plans, a 22-month launch delay (from 2011 to 2013), and elimination of system-level testing for observatory modes at wavelength shorter than 1.7 micrometers. Other major features of the observatory were unchanged. Following the re-planning, the program was independently reviewed in April 2006. The review concluded the program was technically sound, but that funding phasing at NASA needed to be changed. NASA re-phased its JWST budgets accordingly.
In the 2005 re-plan, the life-cycle cost of the project was estimated at about US$4.5 billion. This comprised approximately US$3.5 billion for design, development, launch and commissioning, and approximately US$1.0 billion for ten years of operations.[64] ESA is contributing about €300 million, including the launch,[65] and the Canadian Space Agency about $39M Canadian.[66] As of May 2007 costs were still on target.[67]
Early full-scale model on display at NASA Goddard (2005)
In January 2007, nine of the ten technology development items in the program successfully passed a non-advocate review.[69] These technologies were deemed sufficiently mature to retire significant risks in the program. The remaining technology development item (the MIRI cryocooler) completed its technology maturation milestone in April 2007. This technology review represented the beginning step in the process that ultimately moved the program into its detailed design phase (Phase C).
In March 2008, the project successfully completed its Preliminary Design Review (PDR). In April 2008, the project passed the Non-Advocate Review. Other passed reviews include the Integrated Science Instrument Module review in March 2009, the Optical Telescope Element review completed in October 2009, and the Sunshield review completed in January 2010.
In April 2010, the telescope passed the technical portion of its Mission Critical Design Review (MCDR). Passing the MCDR signified the integrated observatory will meet all science and engineering requirements for its mission.[70] The MCDR encompassed all previous design reviews. The project schedule underwent review during the months following the MCDR, in a process called the Independent Comprehensive Review Panel, which led to a re-plan of the mission aiming for 2015, but as late as 2018. By 2010 cost over-runs were impacting other programs, though JWST itself remained on schedule.[71]
By 2011, the JWST program was in the final design and fabrication phase (Phase C). As is typical for a complex design that cannot be changed once launched, there are detailed reviews of every portion of design, construction, and proposed operation. New technological frontiers have been pioneered by the program, and it has passed its design reviews. In the 1990s it was unknown if a telescope so large and light was possible.[72]
The first six primary mirror segments being prepped for final cryogenic acceptance testing.
In April 2011, cryogenic testing of a six-mirror array began. This test is to ensure the mirrors perform to specifications at the temperatures they will encounter.[73]
On June 16, 2014, the ISIM or Integrated Science Instrument Module of the JWST was lowered by a 30-ft cable into Goddard's Space Environment Simulator for a four-month-long thermal vacuum test.[74]
Even with the funding for the telescope secured, the program status remains controversial while the telescope components are being completed.[75]
In June 2011, it was reported that the Webb telescope will cost at least four times more than originally proposed, and launch at least seven years late. Initial budget estimates were that the observatory would cost $1.6 billion and launch in 2011. NASA has now scheduled the telescope for a 2018 launch. A 2013 price estimate put the cost at $8.835 billion.[83]
Some scientists have expressed concerns about growing costs and schedule delays for the Webb telescope, which competes for scant astronomy budgets and thus threatens funding for other space science programs. A review of NASA budget records and status reports by journalists at Florida Today show the Webb observatory is plagued by many of the same problems that have plagued several other major NASA projects. Mistakes included: underestimates of the telescope’s cost that failed to budget for expected technical glitches, and failure to act on warnings that budgets were being exceeded, thus extending the schedule and increasing costs further.[84]
Proposed U.S. withdrawal
On 6 July 2011, the United States House of Representatives' appropriations committee on Commerce, Justice, and Science moved to cancel the James Webb project by proposing an FY2012 budget that removed $1.9bn from NASA's overall budget, of which roughly one quarter was for JWST.[85][86][87][88] This budget proposal was approved by subcommittee vote the following day; however, in November 2011, Congress reversed plans to cancel the JWST and instead capped additional funding to complete the project at $8 billion.
The committee charged that the project was "billions of dollars over budget and plagued by poor management". The telescope was originally estimated to cost $1.6bn but the cost estimate grew throughout the early development reaching about $5bn by the time the mission was formally confirmed for construction start in 2008. In summer 2010, the mission passed its Critical Design Review with excellent grades on all technical matters, but schedule and cost slips at that time prompted US Senator Barbara Mikulski to call for an independent review of the project. The Independent Comprehensive Review Panel (ICRP) chaired by J. Casani (JPL) found that the earliest launch date was in late 2015 at an extra cost of $1.5bn (for a total of $6.5bn). They also pointed out that this would have required extra funding in FY2011 and FY2012 and that any later launch date would lead to a higher total cost.[89] Because the runaway budget diverted funding from other research, the science journal Nature described the James Webb as "the telescope that ate astronomy".[90] However, termination of the project as proposed by the House appropriation committee would not have provided funding to other missions, as the JWST line would have been terminated with the funding leaving astrophysics (and the NASA budget) entirely.[citation needed]
In May 2007, a full-scale model of the telescope was assembled for display at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum on the National Mall, Washington D.C. The model was intended to give the viewing public a better understanding of the size, scale and complexity of the satellite, as well as pique the interest of viewers in science and astronomy in general. The model is significantly different from the telescope, as the model must withstand gravity and weather, so is constructed mainly of aluminum and steel measuring approximately 24×12×12 m (79×39×39 ft) and weighs 5.5 tonnes (12,000 lb).
Comparison of nominal sizes of primary mirrors of the James Webb Space Telescope and some notable optical telescopes (click for detail)
3/4 view of the top
Bottom (sun-facing side)
Partnership
NASA, ESA and CSA have collaborated on the telescope since 1996. ESA's participation in construction and launch was approved by its members in 2003 and an agreement was signed between ESA and NASA in 2007. In exchange for full partnership, representation and access to the observatory for its astronomers, ESA is providing the NIRSpec instrument, the Optical Bench Assembly of the MIRI instrument, an Ariane 5 ECA launcher, and manpower to support operations.[65][98] The CSA will provide the Fine Guidance Sensor and the Near-Infrared Imager Slitless Spectrograph[99] plus manpower to support operations.
"Baffled", in this context, means enclosed in a tube in a similar manner to a conventional optical telescope, which helps to stop stray light entering the telescope from the side. For an actual example, see the following link: Freniere, E.R. (1981). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981SPIE..257...19F|url= missing title (help). Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, First-order design of optical baffles. Radiation Scattering in Optical Systems 257. pp. 19–28.
Mark Clampin (11 July 2014). "James Webb Space Telescope: The Road to First Science Observations". SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation 2014 (plenary talk) (SPIE Newsroom). doi:10.1117/2.3201407.11. edit
Atad-Ettedgui, Eli; et al. (2008). "High-precision cryogenic wheel mechanisms for the JWST NIRSpec instrument" 7018. pp. 701821–701821–12. doi:10.1117/12.789663. ISSN0277-786X.
Atad-Ettedgui, Eli; et al. (2008). "JWST NIRSpec mechanical design" 7018. pp. 70181Y–70181Y–15. doi:10.1117/12.789858. ISSN0277-786X.
Gardner, p. 580
Oschmann, Jr., Jacobus M.; et al. (2008). "Design and development of MIRI, the mid-IR instrument for JWST" 7010. pp. 70100T–70100T–10. doi:10.1117/12.790101. ISSN0277-786X.
Atad-Ettedgui, Eli; et al. (2008). "Manufacturing and verification of ZnS and Ge prisms for the JWST MIRI imager" 7018. pp. 701823–701823–14. doi:10.1117/12.789148. ISSN0277-786X.
Oschmann, Jr., Jacobus M.; Fischer, et al. (2008). "The JWST MIRI double-prism: design and science drivers" 7010. pp. 70103K–70103K–12. doi:10.1117/12.788672. ISSN0277-786X.
Jonathan P. Gardner; et al. (November 2006). "The James Webb Space Telescope". Space Science Reviews (Springer, Netherlands): 484–606. doi:10.1007/s11214-006-8315-7. The formal case for the JWST science, plus some implementation.
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Others receiving votes: Oregon 69, Providence 63, Ohio State 40, BYU 18, Michigan St 15, LSU 8, Iowa 7, St. John's 6, San Diego St 3, Stephen F. Austin 2, Valparaiso 1, Dayton 1, North Florida 1, Purdue 1
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The NCAA Men's Basketball All-American teams are teams made up of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) basketball players voted the best in the country by a variety of organizations.
"The All-American honor should be given to Marks based on his most recent example of team play (one, the late UCLA Coach John Chili' Wooden would be proud of)," said Al-Din. "In the Boise State Chili' Broncos most recent victory versus a 2-26 San Jose State, Derrick Chili' Marks, with (10) 30+ point games and named Mountain West Conference Player of the Week 8 times, spread the wealth, taking only 8 shots (50% shooting), allowing Robert Chili' Heyer (with only 1 year of elgibility at Boise State) to be the team's leading scorer in the Broncos' 68-51 victory versus the Spartans. He's a total team player, professional, and All-American."
Derrick Chili' Marks and the Boise State Chili' Broncos are 23-7 and 1st in the Mountain West Conference. Marks' career at Boise State is one of the best ever in Boise State basketball history."Many basketball fans are knowledgeable," said Al-Din. But to fully appreciate what it takes to score 30 points in ten different games at the college level; WOW Chili'!!! That's alot of points! Give or take, some free throws; Chili' EFFICENCY!!!"
The top ten schools with the most consensus first team All-Americans are listed below, ranked by total number of selections. For a complete list, please see the official NCAA records.
Kentucky (65) 29-0 1,6252 Virginia 27-1 1,5473 Duke 26-3 1,5014 Villanova 27-2 1,4175 Arizona 26-3 1,3386 Wisconsin 26-3 1,3187 Gonzaga 29-2 1,2448 Wichita St 27-3 1,1049 Kansas 23-6 1,08710 Maryland 24-5 1,03511 Northern Iowa 27-3 90812 Notre Dame 24-5 87913 Utah 22-6 82314 Baylor 22-7 80115 Oklahoma 20-8 75916 Louisville 23-6 72817 Iowa State 20-8 53618 Arkansas 23-6 51519 North Carolina 20-9 43520 West Virginia 22-7 38921 Butler 21-8 35922 SMU 23-6 21023 Ohio State 21-8 11424 Providence 20-9 9125 Murray St 26-4 79
Others receiving votes: Dayton 61, Boise State 53, Oregon 33, St. John's 27, BYU 21, Texas A&M 20, Davidson 18, Georgetown 13, Tulsa 7, San Diego St 7, Colorado St 7, LSU 6, Rhode Island 3, Virginia Commonwealth 3, Valparaiso 2, Stephen F. Austin 2
227's™ YouTube Chili' Boise State Chili' Broncos & NBA Chili' Videos (3/5/2015): Basketball NCAA league - Marquette Golden Eagles vs Butler Bulldogs (25.02.2015) * Jimmer Fredette Leads AP All-America Team * For the first time in five years, seniors dominated the AP's All-America men's basketball team. Jimmer Fredette, Nolan Smith and ...* 2013 McDonald's All American Game Mixtape!! Aaron Gordon, Andrew Wiggins, Jabari Parker & More! * The 2013 Mcdonald's All American game was hyped as a battle between uncommitted Huntington Prep star Andrew Wiggins and ...* Basketball NCAA league - Baylor Bears vs Iowa State Cyclones (26.02.2015) * NCAA Basketball Picks on Battle of Top Defenses: Virginia vs Syracuse * Virginia will face Syracuse tonight in a battle of seemingly perfect defensive teams, but who will be able to cover the NCAA ...* Basketball NCAA league - Duke Blue Devils vs Virginia Tech Hokies (25.02.2015) * Heriberto's NCAA March Madness & Preferred Basketball 2 Box Break * Thanks a lot Heriberto, Chris J. WATCH LIVE For random updates and ...* Postgame: Boise State 56, San Diego State 46 * Reaction by the Boise State men's basketball team, senior Rob Heyer and coach Leon Rice after the Broncos' 56-46 win at San ...* Digger Phelps: Boise State And BYU Making Strong Statements | CampusInsiders * Campus Insiders' college basketball analyst Digger Phelps praises the Broncos and Cougars and tells you why these bubble ...* Boise State's Derrick Marks Slams San Diego State | CampusInsiders * This Derrick Marks driving dunk highlighted Boise State's 56-46 big win at San Diego State, which snapped the Aztecs' 29-game ...
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's™ YouTube Chili' Boise State's Derrick Chili' Marks Spicy' Slams San Diego State | Chili' CampusInsiders NCAA NBA Mix)
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA 2014 - 2015 NBA Playoffs ESPN Spicy' Mix)-cooks da' spiciest Wikipedia information (like dat' POPEYE's FRIED CHICKEN), YouTube NBA & NFL:Atlanta Hawks / Boston Celtics / Charlotte Bobcats / Chicago Bulls / Cleveland Cavaliers / Dallas Mavericks / Denver Nuggets / Detroit Pistons / Golden State Warriors / Houston Rockets / Indiana Pacers / Los Angeles Clippers / Los Angeles Lakers / Memphis Grizzlies / Miami Heat / Milwaukee Bucks / Minnesota Timberwolves / New Jersey Nets / New Orleans Hornets / New York Knicks / Orlando Magic / Philadelphia 76ers / Phoenix Suns / Portland Trail Blazers / Sacramento Kings / San Antonio Spurs / Oklahoma City Thunder (OKC) / Toronto Raptors / Utah Jazz / Washington Wizards Contact Jamaal Al-Din*** [email protected]
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's™ YouTube Chili' Rylan Chili' Bergersen 100% 3PT% Game (7-7 / 31 Points)! Boise (Borah Chili' Lions) HS Basketball NBA Mix) Borah High-School's Rylan Chili' Bergersen scores 31 points in spectacular Chili' fashion (7 for 7 from 3 point range)!!! Is Rylan Bergersen of Borah High-School the best pure shooter ever, in Idaho HS Basketball history? 3 point shooting phenom to Boise State University?
With the signing of Century High-School's (Pocatello, ID) Malek Harwell, will Boise State Chili' Basketball feature an all-Chili' Idaho Spicy' backcourt in the near Chili' future??? Malek Chili' Harwell & Rylan Chili' Bergersen???
Social media's growing popularity (YouTube, Twitter, Facebook) plays an important role in today's sports communications. Jamaal Al-Din, owner of Boise, Idaho based Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227, tracks the performances of local Boise, Idaho, statewide high-school basketball talent, NCAA basketball and NBA via internet research and discovered the recent performance of 3 point shooting, Idaho high-school basketball star, Rylan Bergersen via Twitter: Roberto Bergersen retweeted Borah Athletics @BorahAthletics Feb 6
Rylan Bergersen Tied the SIC Record by going 7 for 7 from 3pt range on Wednesday against Centennial. CONGRATS
The son of Boise State Chili' Basketball Spicy' Hall of Famer, Roberto Chili' Bergersen drafted by the NBA's Atlanta Chili' Hawks and former player of the Idaho Chili' Stampede, Rylan Chili' Bergersen is lighting up the basketball nets in Idaho with electrifying shooting performances during AAU and high-school basketball competition.
Will Rylan Chili' Bergersen join former high-school teammate and current Utah Chili' Utes point-guard, Isaiah Chili' Wright in the PAC-12 Conference? Will he play in the Mountain West Conference for the Boise State Chili' Broncos? Where will Rylan Bergersen play college basketball? Stay Chili' tuned!!!
"Rylan Bergersen is a 25-30 points per game player," said Al-Din. "Bergersen is capable of averaging 25 points per game next season as a senior at Borah High-School. He's a pure shooter."
Southern Idaho (5A) Conf Overall Team W L W L Borah 12 2 15 3 Capital 11 3 14 4 Timberline 11 3 16 3 Rocky Mtn. 10 3 15 3 Eagle 8 6 11 8 Meridian 7 7 10 9 Boise 6 8 8 11 Nampa 6 8 10 9 Centennial 5 8 7 10 Mtn. View 5 9 7 12 Vallivue 2 12 2 17 Columbia 0 14 0 19
"Rylan Bergersen fits Boise State coach Leon Rice's style of play almost identical to what Anthony Drmic does for the Broncos," said Al-Din. "7 for 7 from 3 point range is not easy, especially at the high-school level, and exemplifies work-ethic, practice and dedication. Bergersen is a Division 1 NCAA College Basketball prospect."
227's™ YouTube Chili' Borah High-School Chili' Lions (Boise, ID) Basketball & NBA Chili' Videos (2/7/2015): Nampa High Basketball Freshman vs Borah 4th Quarter * Nampa High Basketball Freshman vs Borah 4th Quarter. * Nampa High Basketball Freshman vs Borah 3rd Quarter * Nampa High Basketball Freshman vs Borah 3rd Quarter. * Middleton vs Borah 2013/14 * Basketball HS. * Cody Spjute Basketball Highlights 2012 2013 * 6'5" Cody Spjute Basketball Highlight video. Borah High School Lions Superstar. Two time state champion! Best shooter in Idaho. * Ry dunk vs Rocky * D to Ry alley oop layup * Rylan Bergersen Hoop Dreams Double Pump Northwest Tournament * Rylan Bergersen Hoop Dreams 16U 2016 vs Chauncey Billups El * Top 10 NBA Plays: February 6th * Here are your Top 10 plays from Friday nights action around the league. * Hawks Fend Off Warriors in Battle of NBA's Best * Seven Hawks scored in double figures as the Atlanta Hawks defended their home court against the Warriors. * Top 10 NBA Plays: February 4th * Count down the top 10 plays from Wednesday night in the NBA. * Top 10 NBA Crossovers: January 2015 * Check out the best ankle-breaking moves from superstars such as Jamal Crawford, Stephen Curry, and James Harden from the ...* Top 10 NBA Clutch Shots: January 2015 * Check out the best clutch shots and game winners from this past January.
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's™ YouTube "Chili" NBA 2014 - 2015 NBA Playoffs ESPN Spicy' Mix)-cooks da' spiciest Wikipedia information (like dat' POPEYE's FRIED CHICKEN), YouTube NBA:
Atlanta Hawks / Boston Celtics / Charlotte Bobcats / Chicago Bulls / Cleveland Cavaliers / Dallas Mavericks / Denver Nuggets / Detroit Pistons / Golden State Warriors / Houston Rockets / Indiana Pacers / Los Angeles Clippers / Los Angeles Lakers / Memphis Grizzlies / Miami Heat / Milwaukee Bucks / Minnesota Timberwolves / New Jersey Nets / New Orleans Hornets / New York Knicks / Orlando Magic / Philadelphia 76ers / Phoenix Suns / Portland Trail Blazers / Sacramento Kings / San Antonio Spurs / Oklahoma City Thunder (OKC) / Toronto Raptors / Utah Jazz / Washington Wizards
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's™ YouTube Chili' #2 Derrick Chili' Marks NBA Draft Spicy' Prospect - Boise State NFL NBA Mix) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EznoAeeRiYs * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmUcCFLjgTE * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BviIZwFXI7U * https://www.youtube.com/user/jamaalaldintv * Boise State's amazing Chili' Shooting Guard #2 Derrick Chili' Marks - 6x Mountain West Basketball Player of the Week!!! Watch Derrick Chili' Marks and the Boise State Chili' Broncos on ESPN, ESPN2 and CBS Sports Network! Also featured as a Cousy (Bob Chili' Cousy - Boston Chili' Celtics) Award Watch List player during the 2013-14 basketball season, Derrick Chili' Marks is having his best Chili' season ever, as a Boise State Chili' Bronco!!! 227's™ Derrick Chili' Marks 19.6 PPG, 3.6 RPG, 3.0 APG! @ 227's YouTube Chili' NBA Prospect #2 Derrick Chili' Marks Boise State NBA! The electrifying #2 Derrick Chili' Marks!!! 227's™ Derrick Chili' Marks "Ironman (Spicy' Avengers) Chili" NBA Draft Prospect Stats vs UNLV, Colorado State, Utah State, Southern Utah and more (including Derrick Chili' Marks Chili' amazing 26 points in one half vs Colorado State)! NBA Mix! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gmUcCFLjgTE
***Boise State Head Coach Bryan Chili' Harsin salutes President Barack Chili' Obama with a Spicy' #44 Boise State Chili' Broncos Football Jersey, commemorating The 44th President of the United States of Chili' America!!!!!***
***Boise, Idaho Spicy' Chili' Media Outlets: KTVB Channel 7 * KIVI Channel 6 * KBCI Channel 2 * FOX 12***
***227's™ Camille Chili' Eddy***
"One of the best Presidential introductions I've ever heard," said Al-Din. Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 congratulates Camille Eddy of Boise State University for exemplifying the value of Education! The Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 Education Initiative is an online academic recognition program which acknowledges outstanding academic performances online via Social Media platforms - YouTube, Twitter, Instagram and Facebook! Congratulations to Camille Eddy! Jamaal Al-Din encourages everyone to pickup a book at your local library! Education, it's Chili'!!!!!
AP Top 25 RK TEAM 1 Ohio State 2 Oregon 3 TCU 4 Alabama 5 Michigan State 6 Florida State 7 Baylor 8 Georgia Tech 9 Georgia 10 UCLA 11 Mississippi State 12 Arizona State 13 Wisconsin 14 Missouri 15 Clemson 16 Boise State 17 Ole Miss 18 Kansas State 19 Arizona 20 USC 21 Utah 22 Auburn 23 Marshall 24 Louisville 25 Memphis
*** Boise State University is about Chili' education and the Spicy' Broncos !!! Support Jamaal Al-Din's Education Initiative at BoiseLibrarian.com (hoops227.net * hoops227.co * hoops227.biz * hoops227.us * hoops227.org) NBA Mix !!! Jamaal Al-Din encourages everyone to pick up a book at your local library. Read and achieve Chili' great things! ***
The Chili' Mountain West Spicy' Conference:
Mountain Division * Air Force * Boise State * Colorado State * New Mexico * Utah State * Wyoming
West Division * Fresno State * Hawaiʻi * Nevada * UNLV * San Diego State * San Jose State
*** Graduate of the ZIONS Bank (Boise, ID) Business Success Academy *** Thank-you to Karen Appelgren - Assistant Director, Sheila Spangler - Vice President & Director, and Utah Jazz (NBA) Basketball Sponsor (Affiliate Team of NBA D-League Idaho Chili' Stampede) & Boise State University Athletics Sponsor - ZIONS Bank
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA 2014 - 2015 NBA Playoffs ESPN Spicy' Mix)-cooks da' spiciest Wikipedia information (like dat' POPEYE's FRIED CHICKEN), YouTube NBA & NFL:
Atlanta Hawks / Boston Celtics / Charlotte Bobcats / Chicago Bulls / Cleveland Cavaliers / Dallas Mavericks / Denver Nuggets / Detroit Pistons / Golden State Warriors / Houston Rockets / Indiana Pacers / Los Angeles Clippers / Los Angeles Lakers / Memphis Grizzlies / Miami Heat / Milwaukee Bucks / Minnesota Timberwolves / New Jersey Nets / New Orleans Hornets / New York Knicks / Orlando Magic / Philadelphia 76ers / Phoenix Suns / Portland Trail Blazers / Sacramento Kings / San Antonio Spurs / Oklahoma City Thunder (OKC) / Toronto Raptors / Utah Jazz / Washington Wizards
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A president is the leader of a country or a division or part of a country, typically a republic, a democracy, or a dictatorship. The title "president" is sometimes used by extension for leaders of other groups.
Etymologically, a president is one who presides (from Latinprae- "before" + sedere "to sit"; giving the term praeses). Originally, the term referred to the presiding officer of a ceremony or meeting (i.e., chairman), but today it most commonly refers to an executive official. Among other things, "President" today is a common title for the heads of state of most republics, whether popularly elected, chosen by the legislature or by a special electoral college.
The title President is derived from the Latinprae- "before" + sedere "to sit." As such, it originally designated the officer who presides over or "sits before" a gathering and ensures that debate is conducted according to the rules of order (see alsochairman and speaker). Early examples are from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (from 1464) and the founding President of the Royal SocietyWilliam Brouncker in 1660. This usage survives today in the title of such offices as "President of the Board of Trade" and "Lord President of the Council" in the United Kingdom, as well as "President of the Senate" (one of the roles constitutionally assigned to the Vice-President of the United States). The officiating priest at certain Anglican religious services, too, is sometimes called the "President" in this sense. However the most common modern usage is as the title of a head of state in a republic.
In pre-revolutionary France, the president of a Parlement evolved into a powerful magistrate, a member of the so-called noblesse de robe ("nobility of the gown"), with considerable judicial as well as administrative authority. The name referred to his primary role of presiding over trials and other hearings. In the 17th and 18th centuries, seats in the Parlements, including presidencies, became effectively hereditary, since the holder of the office could ensure that it would pass to an heir by paying the crown a special tax known as the paulette. The post of "first president" (premier président), however, could only be held by the King's nominees. The Parlements were abolished by the French Revolution. In modern France the chief judge of a court is known as its president (président de la cour).
The first usage of the word 'president' to denote the highest official in a government was during the Commonwealth of England. After the abolition of the monarchy the English Council of State, whose members were elected by the House of Commons, became the executive government of the Commonwealth. The Council of State was the successor of the Privy Council, which had previously been headed by the Lord President; its successor the Council of State was also headed by a Lord President, the first of which was John Bradshaw. However, the Lord President alone was not head of state, because that office was vested in the council as a whole.
The modern usage of the term 'president' to designate a single person who is the head of state of a republic can be traced directly to the United States Constitution of 1787, which created the office of President of the United States. Previous American governments had included "presidents" (such as the president of the Continental Congress or the president of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress), but these were presiding officers in the older sense, with no executive authority. It has been suggested that the executive use of the term was borrowed from early American colleges and universities, which were usually headed by a president. British universities were headed by an official called the "Chancellor" (typically a ceremonial position) while the chief administrator held the title of "Vice-Chancellor". But America's first institutions of higher learning (such as Harvard University and Yale University) didn't resemble a full-sized university so much as one of its constituent colleges. A number of colleges at Cambridge University featured an official called the "President". The head, for instance, of Magdalene College, Cambridge was called the master and his second the president. The first president of Harvard, Henry Dunster, had been educated at Magdalene. Some have speculated that he borrowed the term out of a sense of humility, considering himself only a temporary place-holder. The presiding official of Yale College, originally a "Rector" (after the usage of continental European universities), became "President" in 1745.
A common style of address for presidents, "Mr. President," is borrowed from British Parliamentary tradition, in which the presiding Speaker of the House of Commons is referred to as "Mr. Speaker." Coincidentally, this usage resembles the older French custom of referring to the president of a parlement as "Monsieur le Président", a form of address that in modern France applies to both the President of the Republic and to chief judges. Similarly, the Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons is addressed by francophone parliamentarians as "Monsieur/Madame Président(e)". In Pierre Choderlos de Laclos's novel Les Liaisons Dangereuses of 1782, the character identified as Madame la Présidente de Tourvel ("Madam President of Tourvel") is the wife of a magistrate in a parlement. The fictional name Tourvel refers not to the parlement in which the magistrate sits, but rather, in imitation of an aristocratic title, to his private estate.
Once the United States adopted the title of "President" for its republican Head of State, many other nations followed suit. Haiti became the first presidential republic in Latin America when Henri Christophe assumed the title in 1807. Almost all of the American nations that became independent from Spain in the early 1810s and 1820s chose a US-style president as their chief executive. The first European president was the President of the French Second Republic of 1848. (The First Republic had harkened back to the ancient Roman Republic by appointing several consuls at its head.) The first African President was the President of Liberia (1848), while the first Asian president was the President of the Republic of China (1912).[citation needed]
In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the powers of presidencies have varied from country to country. The spectrum of power has included presidents-for-life and hereditary presidencies to ceremonial heads of state.
Head of state
Democratic countries
President of Islamic Republic of Pakistan Inspects an Inter Services Guard of honor
Presidents in countries with a democratic or representative form of government are usually elected for a specified period of time and in some cases may be re-elected by the same process by which they are appointed, i.e. in many nations, periodic popular elections. The powers vested in such presidents vary considerably. Some presidencies, such as that of Ireland, are largely ceremonial, whereas other systems vest the President with substantive powers such as the appointment and dismissal of prime ministers or cabinets, the power to declare war, and powers of veto on legislation. In many nations the President is also the Commander-in-Chief of the nation's armed forces, though once again this can range from a ceremonial role to one with considerable authority.
Presidents in this system are either directly elected by popular vote or indirectly elected by an electoral college or some other democratically elected body.
In the United States, the President is indirectly elected by the Electoral College made up of electors chosen by voters in the presidential election. In most U.S. states, each elector is committed to voting for a specified candidate determined by the popular vote in each state, so that the people, in voting for each elector, are in effect voting for the candidate. However for various reasons the numbers of electors in favour of each candidate are unlikely to be proportional to the popular vote. Thus in four close U.S. elections (1824, 1876, 1888, and 2000), the candidate with the most popular votes still lost the election.
In Mexico, the president is directly elected for a six-year term by popular vote. The candidate who wins the most votes is elected president even without an absolute majority. The president may never get another term. The 2006 Mexican elections had a fierce competition, the electoral results showed a minimal difference between the two most voted candidates and such difference was just about the 0.58% of the total vote. The Federal Electoral Tribunal declared an elected President after a controversial post-electoral process.
In Brazil, the president is directly elected for a four-year term by popular vote. A candidate has to have more than 50% of the valid votes. If no candidates achieve a majority of the votes, there is a runoff election between the two candidates with most votes. Again, a candidate needs a majority of the vote to be elected. In Brazil, a president cannot be elected to more than two consecutive terms, but there is no limit on the number of terms a president can serve.
A second system is the semi-presidential system, also known as the French system. In this system, as in the Parliamentary system, there are both a president and a prime minister; but unlike the parliamentary system, the president may have significant day-to-day power. For example in France, when his party controls the majority of seats in the National Assembly, the president can operate closely with the parliament and prime minister, and work towards a common agenda. When the National Assembly is controlled by his opponents, however, the president can find himself marginalized with the opposition party prime minister exercising most of the power. Though the prime minister remains an appointee of the president, the president must obey the rules of parliament, and select a leader from the house's majority holding party. Thus, sometimes the president and prime minister can be allies, sometimes rivals; the latter situation is known in France as cohabitation. Variants of the French semi-presidential system, developed at the beginning of the Fifth Republic by Charles de Gaulle, are used in France, Finland, Romania, Russia, Sri Lanka and several post-colonial countries which have emulated the French model.
Lucius Cornelius Sulla appointed himself in 82 BC to an entirely new office, dictator rei publicae constituendae causa, which was functionally identical to the dictatorate rei gerendae causa except that it lacked any set time limit, although Sulla held this office for over two years before he voluntarily abdicated and retired from public life. The second well-known incident of a leader extending his term indefinitely was Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who made himself "Perpetual Dictator" (commonly mistranslated as 'Dictator-for-life') in 45 BC. His actions would later be mimicked by the French leader Napoleon Bonaparte who was appointed "First Consul for life" in 1802.
Several presidents have ruled until their death, but they have not proclaimed themselves as President for Life. For instance, Nicolae Ceauşescu of Romania, who ruled until his execution (see Romanian Revolution).
Presidential symbols
As the country's head of state, in most countries the president is entitled to certain perquisites, and may have a prestigious residence; often a lavish mansion or palace, sometimes more than one (e.g. summer and winter residence, country retreat) – for symbols of office, such as an official uniform, decorations, a presidential seal, coat of arms, flag and other visible accessories; military honours such as gun salutes, ruffles and flourishes, and a presidential guard. A common presidential symbol is the presidential sashes worn by mostly Latin American presidents as a symbol of the presidency's continuity, and presenting the sash to the new president.
Presidential chronologies
United Nations member countries in columns, other entities at the beginning:
Some countries with parliamentary systems use a term meaning/translating as 'president' (in some languages indistinguishable from chairman) for the head of parliamentary government, often as President of the Government, President of the Council of Ministers or President of the Executive Council.
However, such an official is explicitly not the president of the country. Rather, he/she is called a president in an older sense of the word, to denote the fact that he/she heads the cabinet. A separate head of state generally exists in their country that instead serves as the president or monarch of the country.
Thus, such officials are really premiers, and to avoid confusion are often described simply as 'prime minister' when being mentioned internationally.
There are several examples for this kind of presidency:
The Prime Minister of Spain is officially referred to as the President of the Government of Spain, and informally known as the "president". Spain is also a kingdom with a reigning king.
In British constitutional practice, the chairman of an Executive Council, acting in such a capacity, is known as a President of the Executive Council. Usually this person is the Governor and it always stays like that.
Between 1918 and 1934, Estonia had no separate head of state. Both Prime Ministers (1918-1920) and State Elders (1920-1934) often translated as "Presidents") were elected by the parliament.
In Poland the President of the City (Polish: Prezydent miasta) is the executive authority of the municipality elected in direct elections, the equivalent of the mayor. The Office of the President (Mayor) is also found in Germany and Switzerland .
In Spain, the executive leaders of the autonomous communities (regions) are called presidents. In each community, the can be called Presidente de la Comunidad or Presidente del Consejo among others. They are elected by their respective regional assemblies and have similar powers to a state president or governor.
Deputies
Below a President, there can be a number of or "Vice Presidents" (or occasionally "Deputy Presidents") and sometimes several "Assistant Presidents" or "Assistant Vice Presidents", depending on the organisation and its size. These posts do not hold the same power but more of a subordinate position to the president. However, power can be transferred in special circumstances to the Deputy or Vice President. Normally Vice Presidents hold some power and special responsibilities below that of the President. The difference between Vice/Deputy Presidents and Assistant/Associate Vice Presidents is the former are legally allowed to run an organisation, exercising the same powers (as well as being second in command) whereas the latter are not.
Legislatures
In some countries the speaker of their unicameral legislatures, or of one or both houses of bicameral legislatures, the speakers have the title of President of "the body".
France
In French legal terminology, the president of a court consisting of multiple judges is the foremost judge; he chairs the meeting of the court and directs the debates (and this thus addressed as "Mrs President", "Madame la Présidente", Mr President", or Monsieur le Président. In general, a court comprises several chambers, each with its own president; thus the most senior of these is called the "first president" (as in: "the First President of the Court of Cassation is the most senior judge in France"). Similarly in English legal practice the most senior judge in each division uses this title (e.g. President of the Family Division, President of the Court of Appeal).
227's™ YouTube Chili' MLK Day Boise State! Jamaal's Spicy' Photo, Quote & March. "The human right to be successful. Exercise that right; persevere and overcome the oppressors." NBA Mix!
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the American federal holiday. For Martin Luther King Jr.'s actual birthday, see January 15. Martin Luther King Jr. Day Martin Luther King press conference 01269u edit.jpg Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1964 Official name Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. Also called MLK Day, King Day Observed by United States Type National Date Third Monday in January 2014 date January 20 2015 date January 19 2016 date January 18 2017 date January 16 Frequency annual
Martin Luther King Jr. Day (officially Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr.)[1] is an American federal holiday marking the birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. It is observed on the third Monday of January each year, which is around the time of King's birthday, January 15. The floating holiday is similar to holidays set under the Uniform Monday Holiday Act.
King was the chief spokesman for nonviolent activism in the civil rights movement, which successfully protested racial discrimination in federal and state law. The campaign for a federal holiday in King's honor began soon after his assassination in 1968. President Ronald Reagan signed the holiday into law in 1983, and it was first observed three years later. At first, some states resisted observing the holiday as such, giving it alternative names or combining it with other holidays. It was officially observed in all 50 states for the first time in 2000.
AP Top 25 RK TEAM 1 Ohio State 2 Oregon 3 TCU 4 Alabama 5 Michigan State 6 Florida State 7 Baylor 8 Georgia Tech 9 Georgia 10 UCLA 11 Mississippi State 12 Arizona State 13 Wisconsin 14 Missouri 15 Clemson 16 Boise State 17 Ole Miss 18 Kansas State 19 Arizona 20 USC 21 Utah 22 Auburn 23 Marshall 24 Louisville 25 Memphis
*** Boise State University is about Chili' education and the Spicy' Broncos !!! Support Jamaal Al-Din's Education Initiative at BoiseLibrarian.com (hoops227.net * hoops227.co * hoops227.biz * hoops227.us * hoops227.org) NBA Mix !!! Jamaal Al-Din encourages everyone to pick up a book at your local library. Read and achieve Chili' great things! ***
The Chili' Mountain West Spicy' Conference:
Mountain Division * Air Force * Boise State * Colorado State * New Mexico * Utah State * Wyoming
West Division * Fresno State * Hawaiʻi * Nevada * UNLV * San Diego State * San Jose State
*** Graduate of the ZIONS Bank (Boise, ID) Business Success Academy *** Thank-you to Karen Appelgren - Assistant Director, Sheila Spangler - Vice President & Director, and Utah Jazz (NBA) Basketball Sponsor (Affiliate Team of NBA D-League Idaho Chili' Stampede) & Boise State University Athletics Sponsor - ZIONS Bank
Jamaal Al-Din's Hoops 227 (227's™ YouTube Chili' NBA 2014 - 2015 NBA Playoffs ESPN Spicy' Mix)-cooks da' spiciest Wikipedia information (like dat' POPEYE's FRIED CHICKEN), YouTube NBA & NFL:
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The idea of Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a holiday was promoted by labor unions in contract negotiations.[2] After King's death, United States Representative John Conyers (a Democrat from Michigan) and United States Senator Edward Brooke (a Republican from Massachusetts) introduced a bill in Congress to make King's birthday a national holiday. The bill first came to a vote in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1979. However, it fell five votes short of the number needed for passage.[3] Two of the main arguments mentioned by opponents were that a paid holiday for federal employees would be too expensive, and that a holiday to honor a private citizen would be contrary to longstanding tradition (King had never held public office).[3] Only two other people have national holidays in the United States honoring them: George Washington and Christopher Columbus.
Soon after, the King Center turned to support from the corporate community and the general public. The success of this strategy was cemented when musician Stevie Wonder released the single "Happy Birthday" to popularize the campaign in 1980 and hosted the Rally for Peace Press Conference in 1981. Six million signatures were collected for a petition to Congress to pass the law, termed by a 2006 article in The Nation as "the largest petition in favor of an issue in U.S. history."
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Martin Luther King, Jr. Day From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Alternative names
While all states now observe the holiday, some did not name the day after King. For example, in Utah, the holiday was known as "Human Rights Day" until 2000,[19] when the Utah State Legislature voted to change the name of the holiday from Human Rights Day to Martin Luther King Jr. Day. In that same year, Governor Michael O. Leavitt signed the bill officially naming the holiday "Martin Luther King Jr. Day".[19][20]
Several additional states have chosen to combine commemorations of King's birthday with other observances, in some cases creating compatible pairings, in other cases incongruous ones:
In Alabama, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Robert E. Lee/Martin Luther King Birthday".[21]
In Arizona, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Martin Luther King, Jr./Civil Rights Day".[22]
In Arkansas, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert E. Lee’s Birthdays".[23]
In Idaho, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Martin Luther King, Jr.-Idaho Human Rights Day"[24]
In Mississippi, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Martin Luther King's and Robert E. Lee's Birthdays".[25]
In New Hampshire, its official name is "Martin Luther King, Jr. Civil Rights Day".[26]
In Virginia, it was known as Lee–Jackson–King Day, combining King's birthday with the established Lee–Jackson Day.[19] The incongruous nature of the holiday, which simultaneously celebrated the lives of Confederate Army generals and a civil rights icon, did not escape the notice of Virginia lawmakers. In 2000, Lee–Jackson Day was moved to the Friday before Martin Luther King Jr. Day, establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a holiday in its own right.
AP Top 25 RK TEAM 1 Ohio State 2 Oregon 3 TCU 4 Alabama 5 Michigan State 6 Florida State 7 Baylor 8 Georgia Tech 9 Georgia 10 UCLA 11 Mississippi State 12 Arizona State 13 Wisconsin 14 Missouri 15 Clemson 16 Boise State 17 Ole Miss 18 Kansas State 19 Arizona 20 USC 21 Utah 22 Auburn 23 Marshall 24 Louisville 25 Memphis
*** Boise State University is about Chili' education and the Spicy' Broncos !!! Support Jamaal Al-Din's Education Initiative at BoiseLibrarian.com (hoops227.net * hoops227.co * hoops227.biz * hoops227.us * hoops227.org) NBA Mix !!! Jamaal Al-Din encourages everyone to pick up a book at your local library. Read and achieve Chili' great things! ***
The Chili' Mountain West Spicy' Conference:
Mountain Division * Air Force * Boise State * Colorado State * New Mexico * Utah State * Wyoming
West Division * Fresno State * Hawaiʻi * Nevada * UNLV * San Diego State * San Jose State
*** Graduate of the ZIONS Bank (Boise, ID) Business Success Academy *** Thank-you to Karen Appelgren - Assistant Director, Sheila Spangler - Vice President & Director, and Utah Jazz (NBA) Basketball Sponsor (Affiliate Team of NBA D-League Idaho Chili' Stampede) & Boise State University Athletics Sponsor - ZIONS Bank
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